LESSON 7-1

Lexical Subcategorization

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In Lesson 6, we saw some examples of subcategorization (subdivisions) when we discussed abstract and concrete nouns. In this lesson, we will look at subcategorization not only in nouns but also within the categories of verbs and adjectives. Let us start with verb categorization.

Verbs subcategorized

A traditional subcategorization of verbs is in terms of whether they take objects or not. Verbs that take an object NP are called transitive verbs; those that take no objects are intransitive; and those that take two NPs are referred to as ditransitive verbs. Let us consider some examples:

• I helped Jane. Transitive
• I saw Jane. Transitive
• Feride loves chocolate. Transitive

• I run a mile every day. Intransitive. (not!)
• I slept late this morning. Intransitive.
• My husband exercises every Sunday. Intransitive.

• I gave the money to charity. Ditransitive (money and charity are objects, where money is said to be direct object & charity indirect—direct object is in some sense more directly affected by the action of the verb.)

• I told him the truth. Ditransitive (truth is the direct object and him indirect)

• She explained the problem to her students. Ditransitive (problem is the direct object and students indirect) Note: sometimes, the indirect object is implied –is not directly stated. It is still ditransitive, though. That is, we can say, “she explained the problem.” It is implied that when you explain something, you do that to someone else. There’s an implied addressee.

Hence, we can categorize the verbs using the frames:

NP---------NP (transitive; appears after a subject NP and before an object NP), as in help

NP-------- (intransitive; appears after a subject NP –with no NP following), as in fall

NP---------NP NP (ditransitive; appears after a subject NP and before 2 object NPs), as in give

Verbs are also categorized with regard to complements that they take: a complement is, roughly, a clause/phrase that completes another syntactic unit/structure. Simply put, some verbs take full sentences, while others do not. Examples follow:

• I believe that I’ll be rich one day. (that is called a complementizer; if and whether can function as such, as well) )
• Do you know whether he is here yet?
• He denied that he was guilty.
• I regret that I hurt his feelings.

For such verbs, we can have a frame NP---------S (that is, the verb occurs after a subject NP and before a sentence).

Linking verbs (also known as copula) is another subcategory with the class of verbs. This small class includes to be forms and such verbs as seem, appear and become. Consider these examples:

• John is a teacher.
• She is from New York.
• We are ready.
• She looks great.
• The child appeared guilty.
• It seems likely that they will join us.

Thus, the syntactic frame here would be NP----------Adjectives or NPs or PPs. (That is, the copula occurs after a subject and before an adjective, noun phrase or a prepositional phrase.)

Linking verbs constitute a distinct group, different than auxiliaries. With AUX, there’s a main verb in the sentence and the to be form acts as a helping verb. With copula, the copula itself is the only verb in the sentence.

Contrast:

I am typing now. (Am is an AUX here, not a copula; there’s a main verb ‘type’)

I am tired now. (Am is a copula, followed by an adjective; it constitutes the verb of the sentence)

Now you try: what is the function of ‘is’ in the following sentences? AUX or copula?

1. My mother is 80.
2. She is from Istanbul.
3. My son Emre is at a friend’s house right now.
4. Emre is playing on a traveling team this year.
5. My cat Lazy is sleeping now.
6. Lazy is so cute!

(Answers: 4 & 5= AUX; copula in remainder)

Verbs are also categorized as stative and non-stative/dynamic. Stative ones usually describe a mental state, e.g., know, want, desire, and understand, or a state of ownership, as in own. Such verbs do not (ordinarily) appear in progressive tense:

• *I am knowing French.
• *I am desiring spaghetti.
• *She’s owning a Mercedes.

Non-stative verbs (those referring to an action/act) sound fine in progressive tense:

• She’s playing b-ball.
• I was reading when he called.
• We were playing a game when you stopped by.

Hence, for stative verbs, we could posit the frame: NP_____-V+ing (that is, the verb appears after a subject NP but not before a verb that has an -ing ending.)

Nouns subcategorized

You may recall that we have already subcategorized nouns as concrete and abstract, as in dictionary and integrity, respectively. Another way to subcategorize them is by considering whether they are count or non-count (mass) nouns. Count nouns refer to countable units, as in 2 books; non-count nouns are used to describe entities that cannot be counted, as in air, water, mass, etc. Thus, the frame Numeral____

would apply to count nouns only.

Another subcategory within the category of nouns is proper nouns. Proper nouns, e.g., Jane, Jim, Maria, do not (ordinarily) occur with an article. That is, *the Jane stopped by is not grammatical. (Of course, we have special cases like ‘Maria has changed so much; she is no longer the Maria that we have admired all these years. ’

Adjectives subcategorized

Stative vs. non-stative subcategorization applies to adjectives, as well as verbs. Stative ones, e.g., tall, red, new, refer to more permanent states than non-stative/dynamic ones. That is, (1) and (2) sound fine, while (3), where there is a stative verb with a progressive ending, doesn’t sound acceptable.

1. You are very kind.
2. You are being very kind.
3. *You are being very tall.

So much for lexical categorization for the purposes of this class! Clearly a lot more remains – which will have to wait for other courses, e.g., Grammar, among others. Let us now move on to 7-2.